Why Copyright Laws Are Important Today s Business World

Assignment Unit 4 Introduction The progress and well-being of humanity lays on its capacity to create and invent new works in the areas of technology and culture. The promotion and protection of intellectual property encourages the commitment of additional resources for further innovation, spurs economic growth, creates new jobs and industries, and enhances the quality and enjoyment of life. (WIPO, n.d.) In this essay I am going to discuss why copyright laws are important in today’s business world and why copying software and other resources is called â€Å"piracy†. Why copyright laws are important in today’s business world Copyright laws protect certain kinds of original works, such as books, compact discs, films, and software. Creations such as the aforementioned are referred to as â€Å"intellectual property†. Intellectual property is divided into two categories: 1. Industrial Property, which includes patents for inventions, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications. 2. Copyright, which covers literary works, films, music, artistic works and architectural design. (WIPO, n.d.) The industries dealing with copyrighted material in 2002 made up more than 5 percent of the U.S. gross national product and totaled almost $350 billion. (Markgraf, n.d.) Copyright benefits the creator of a work. By assigning exclusive rights to copyright holders, the laws ensure that only the creator or those who have received permission to copy can perform or alter the works. ThisShow MoreRelatedWhy Are Patents Important For Technology?1745 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: What is a Patent? (Natashua Hester) A patent is a limit of property rights that are related to an idea or an invention, which is granted by the United States Patent Trademark Office (Ji, 2011). Patents laws were created in 1787 by Constitution Article I 8 Class 3, which regulates commerce within a foreign nations, states and the trade of Indian tribes (Calvert, 2016). The U.S. Constitution Article I Class 8 stated that progress innovated by Science and Arts are secured by limitedRead MoreQuestions On Intellectual Property Rights1475 Words   |  6 PagesDebate Paper: Intellectual Property Rights The world that exists today was built on two things: innovation and the pursuit of one’s self interest. Our founding founders believed intellectual property to be a way to encourage innovation. Intellectual property (IP) is what ties these two building blocks together. IP is a property right that is granted by some form of government. The government strictly enforces individual property rights, which some believe tends to attract more investment, grows fasterRead MoreCriminal Copyright And Intellectual Property Laws1736 Words   |  7 PagesCriminal copyright infringement can come in many forms. Anything that has been created by one’s mind can technically be considered intellectual property. While the initial idea itself is not something that can be protected by copyright law, patents and actual plans from ideas can be. Many copyright cases are of a civil nature. This occurs when a person or organization feels their intellectual property has been used without their con sent and want either compensation or for the accused party to ceaseRead MoreCensorship And The Media Of Censorship1407 Words   |  6 Pagescontrol over such a vast expanse of land. Whatever was said between people, whatever was written by the press, whatever was televised, all were soon subjected to censorship. This brings us back to the Internet; it comes to no surprise that even the World Wide Web was, and currently is, subjected to great amounts of censorship. Government Surveillance - is the act of carefully observing someone or something in order to detect and prevent dangerous, or unlawful behaviors and actions such as crime. ToRead MoreThe Evolution Of The Music Industry1686 Words   |  7 Pagesin 1990 and to iTunes in 2003, the music industry has become an important global industry in last 50 years. The evolution of the music industry has given a boom to the economic activity in many geographical scales. Technological development has been playing an effective role for th e evolution of the music industries. Looking back at the success of these music businesses, it used to be all about fun, dignity, entertainment and business. There were no issues regarding our social and cultural valuesRead MoreShould Copyright Law Be Changed?1949 Words   |  8 PagesShould Copyright Law Be Changed? We often experience the effects of copyright law on a day to day basis without even realizing it. Whether we are uploading a video to Youtube or just listening to our favorite songs over the internet, copyright law affects us. For example, nearly everyone who has spent time on Youtube has come across a video that has been taken down due to a copyright claim. Also, listening to Pandora radio for an extended period of time will leave users with a prompt to verifyRead MoreMedia Piracy1584 Words   |  7 Pagesusage today, and debating the global and ethical views, one can see how this is an issue we cannot ignore. Media Piracy 1 INTRODUCTION The term â€Å"piracy† has traditionally been associated with images of skulls, ships, and rum, but in the modern age there is a new definition of piracy that affects our everyday lives in ways society may not have even detected. Media piracy is the illegal downloading or the duplication and distribution of music, movies, TV shows and software [1]. The World Wide WebRead MoreInternet Piracy Harms Artists By Phil Gardson1033 Words   |  5 Pagesact a law against these types of crimes to help protect artists. Philip Gardson is a composer, lyricist, and a music publisher. He is most notable as a songwriter, who writes songs and lyrics to producers, recording artists, managers, and labels. Gardson’s most notable works are Save the Best for Last and The Sweetest Days, recorded by Vanessa Williams; Fly and The Last to Know, which are among five recorded by Celine Dion; One Voice, which was recorded by Brandy, and was UNICEF s themeRead MoreLegal Issues Involve D in Ecommerce2489 Words   |  10 Pagesof the Internet and online activity raise a number of new regulatory issues and legal questions. The power of the Web to reach the world carries with it a variety of legal issues, often related to intellectual property concerns, copyright, trademark, privacy, etc., particularly in the context of doing business on the Internet. Authorities seeking to apply their laws in traditional ways or to expand legal control over international links face many challenges due to the global nature of the InternetRead MoreThe Tightening Of New Items And Technology On The Loose2955 Words   |  12 PagesThe world today is built more with respect to data and data engineering. Data is characterized as learning picked up through study, correspondence, examination, or direction. When somebody makes this information utilizing their brains, who claims this data? Does this scholarly data get to be open area, profiting society, or can this data be secured with the goal that money related addition can happen as a result of this thought? Originators of new items and advances must comprehend the distinctiv e

The On The Good Life Essay - 1363 Words

The concept of living â€Å"the good life† means something different for everyone. There is a general understanding that living â€Å"the good life† is associated with unyielding happiness and lasting satisfaction. The exact meaning of this desired life was pondered by thinkers and philosophers for hundreds of years. They constructed principals of behavior, thought, and obligation that would categorize a person as â€Å"good†. Although some of these ancient philosophies about â€Å"the good life† had overlapping ideas, their concepts varied widely. This contrast of ideas can be examined through two major characters in two famous works: Aeneas in â€Å"The Aeneid† and Socrates in â€Å"The Apology†. Aeneas exemplifies the philosophy that the direct route to â€Å"the good life is through faith, trust in the Gods, and family, while Socrates in â€Å"The Apology† emphasizes free will, and vast knowledge of life. Aeneas shows great commit ment to the Gods throughout his mission in â€Å"The Aeneid†. He believes this devotion and trust in the divine is the meaning of â€Å"the good life†. He is so devoted to his duty that he introduces himself to strangers by stating his service to the Gods. He states, I am Aeneas, duty-bound, and known Above high air of heaven by my fame, Carrying with me in my ships our gods Of hearth and home, saved from the enemy. I look for Italy to be my fatherland, And my descent is from all-highest Jove (Aeneid, 1.519-524) Aeneas makes rash life decisions and gives up his own personal desiresShow MoreRelatedThe Good Life Is Life1306 Words   |  6 PagesThe good life is life that should be focused on it’s true denotation, a present body life, not an afterlife. A key aspect of the good life is that it puts goals, dreams, and aspirations in the main focus. The good life is not a refusal of God and eternity, rather places the religious ideas in the background to allow for full pleasure by the individual. In addition, the good life cherishes the small things in life and places importance on the finite, at risk, unique parts in the journey of an individualRead MoreThe Good Life Is A Happy Life1510 Words   |  7 PagesThe good life is a happy life and is what everybody wants. But what does it mean to have a good life? Everybody has different ideas of a good life. By definition good life mean, balanced lifestyle accomplished goals and dreams that are beneficial to them or loved ones, an education, a nd stability through relationships, work and money. All are elements of good life, but as long as you are happy with yourself, you are having a good life. Life can be abounding in material comforts and luxuries. EverybodyRead MoreQuality Of Life As A Good Life1146 Words   |  5 PagesQuality of life (QOL) means a good life and we believe that a good life is the same as living a life with a high quality. This may seem evident, but it is necessary to make such a simple clarification, because medical jargon often uses very narrow concepts of the quality of life (for example, side effect profiles). Medical advertisements often depict the quality of life as one factor among many, on a par with other improvements that a certain medical product promises. In this work, the quality ofRead MoreWhy Is The Good Life?1279 Words   |  6 PagesSiddhartha soon discovers, Enlightenment-his good life-requires much sacrifice whether it be in the tangible form of food and luxuries or the emotional cost of leaving home. Ismene, in Antigone faces a dilemma when her headstrong sister bade her to help bury their brother which would lead to the forfeiture of their lives. Although the good life seems to imply a sense of ease and pleasantry, nothing worth having comes freely which is why achieving the good life may come at the cost of sacrifices, in whichRead MoreWhat Is A Good Life?1139 Words   |  5 Pageslive well is to live morally. However, as argued by Dworkin in his essay â€Å"What is a Good Life?† high morality does not necessarily equate a high standard of living. Indeed, following austere morals and ethics may lead to an unsatisfying life. For instance, adopting Singer’s approach to absolute morality, as outlined in â€Å"Famine, Affluence, and Morality† would pose a significant hindrance to one’s pursuit of a good life. An approach more conducive to a satisfying lifestyle is moral balancing, a phenomenaRead MoreAristotle Is A Good Life?1211 Words   |  5 Pagesand his works are widely utilized by academics and non-academics when discussing the common theme, â€Å"what is a good life?† Within many of his works Aristotle has addressed the concept of â€Å"eudaimonia.† Simply defined, eudaimonia is, â€Å"happiness or flourishing.† However, Aristotle defined eudaimonia a little bit differently, he claimed that eudaimonia was reaching one s ultimate human good by living well and completing one’s ultimate goals (flourishing). The concept of Eudaimonia is thought toRead MoreAristotle : The Good Life1708 Words   |  7 PagesAristotle: The Good Life Aristotle along with Plato and Socrates are three of the first and arguably the most important philosophers when it comes to modern day philosophy and ethics. Aristotle’s work extended beyond ethics and philosophy into scientific thought where he was a very important figure in that field as well. One of Aristotle’s greatest works was the Nicomachean Ethics. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explores how people should live and concentrates on the individual’s ethical responsibilitiesRead MoreThe Nature Of The Good Life1295 Words   |  6 PagesPhilosophers have been thinking about the nature of the good life since ancient times. The good life was a central topic during the ancient period of philosophy. Many people say that the good life is living a prosperous life full of happiness. There are many different ideologies of the good life and each philosopher has their own values and beliefs. I decided to pick one of the most well known philosophers, Karl Marx. Karl Marx’s philosophy is by far one of the most looked at. He called capitalismRead MorePerpetua And The Good Life781 Words   |  4 PagesCicero agree that the good life should be followed. Perpetua thinks that the good life is found in only one way, by staying true to her faith. However, Cicero thinks that the good life is achieved by being morally good and that people achieve a state of happiness when following this type of life. Although they have different views of the good life, their writings agree that living the good life produces happiness and should be pursued. Perpetua is concerned with living a good life following God andRead MoreThe Importance Of A Good Life843 Words   |  4 Pagesconsidered a good life? Many people in this world have different ideas on what a good life is, and how to fulfill their dreams and feel accomplished. It also depends on if you are a male or female, there can be many different reasons and ideas of a good life. Many people say money is the most important key to a good life. There are also many people that have never had the opportunity to make their life a good one. There are so many obstacles that could get in the way of making your life great. Many

Bridging Technologies for Patients and Suppliers- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theBridging Technologies for Patients Protection and Suppliers. Answer: Introduction With regard to data effectiveness, the healthcare centers confront several difficulties. Nowadays, conditions of several healthcare firms are becoming critical. The delicate data goes through various touch points and centers, including specialists, medical caretakers, patients, protection suppliers and labs, and needs to move quickly as emergencies or crisis happens immediately. There is a need of some secured bridging technology so that the large amount of data will be traded off quickly, and safely, and guarantee that the patient classification and information security should be ensured along with every work process performed in health care center. This immense push for proficient and cost effective procedures to manage patients data has also driven the healthcare centers to move from documents and fax communication systems to cloud-based protected computerized data work processes. Today, most of the healthcare firms utilize secure messaging as well as scanned medical records as a bridging technology for easy and smooth storage of patients medical records. Bridging Technology Healthcare departments empower the enhanced advanced coordination of medical healthcare between unaffiliated frameworks, including the data sharing of finished wellbeing records, huge picture documents, and test outcomes. Bridging technology will extraordinarily diminish the extra burden of keeping medical records by the healthcare coordination groups, and will also drive down the expenses, and enhance the patients experiences. Since protection, as well as security, is fundamental while participating in Healthcare associated informing, suppliers must avoid the potential risk to guard the data. Bridging technologies simply become a bridge to fill the huge gap between the clinicians and the technology. The bridging technology implementation gives the scale as well as the scope of EHR or EMR installations that occur and maintain to occur in the coming five years.Bridging technologies digitizes the clinical as well as business records plus accelerates the transition to the EMR. Success s tarts when health centers with have right technology. At Bridging, health centers value as well as mentor each member of health centers growing team. Overview of bridging technologies Secure Messaging: Switching from hand-written records, fax, messenger, and email to computerized records and secure correspondences; it spares time and cash for Healthcare experts. X-rays of patients can be messaged from experts to specialists, outlines and lab results can be shared among specialists and authorities, protection cases can be assisted, and medicinal structures can be rounded out and marked electronically (Uzuntarla, 2016). At the point, when these exchanges are approved and secured all through the trade, medicinal services laborers increment profitability and patients could give and get data quickly, without stressing on their health care data that could be in danger Scanned Medical Records: Managing persistent wellbeing records, medicines, and transcripts electronically have radically enhanced the proficiency of patients' data. Medical Records Scanning administrations help Practices, Hospitals, and Clinics add paper-based Patient Charts to EMR and EHR Systems (DePasse, Chen, Sawyer, JethwaniSim, 2014). As an expanding number of Healthcare Organizations actualize EMR and EHR Systems, the significance of Medical Records checking is developing exponentially. Numerous clinicians have stood by the truth that, filtering the majority of the inheritance tolerant graph data is frequently a greater test than at first anticipated. Use Effectiveness of Bridging Technologies Use and effectiveness of Secure Messaging: Secure, HIPAA-agreeable content informing arrangements are amazingly imperative in the realm of present-day prescription. These applications can help specialists, medical attendants, and other clinic staff, to streamline the productivity of their patient care, enhances work processes, and limit interferences (Holden, 2014). Also, a solitary devoted interchanges stage can enable the medical staff to speak with each other all the more adequately when outside of work, while as yet staying agreeable with HIPAA benchmarks, and keeping away from conceivably soak fines. Moreover, the secured information doesn't simply enable the medical staff to plainly become more productive. Secure messaging is a great way to secure information and enable health centre to accomplish better patient results. Securing individual data while it's on the Smartphone and requiring a PIN code to get messages related to individual data. This provides the capability for ben eficiaries to recognize the senders message and comprehend the setting around the message as opposed to receive a sketchy note from an unknown number. Capacity to track the status of a message, when it had been got, opened, and so forth. Use and effectiveness of Scanned Medical Records: From a healing facility director's view, the presentation of an EMR framework may appear to be overwhelming, be that as it may, the $14.6 billion in government give financing expects to make this change to the computerized records administration less excruciating for doctors facilities(McIntosh Bishop, 2016).HITECH commanded that healing facility must give confirmation of EMR framework transformation for 80% of patients, keeping in mind the end goal to get further concede financing. As the reception of electronic restorative records to proceed with, it is vital that medicinal service suppliers change over to computerized records administration, to profit both the patient and the social insurance supplier. The exchange of medical records between the workplaces is less tedious and considerably more proficient. Healing facility stays are lessened with more productive procedures and programmed steering of medical data. Fewer oversights a re made that could influence the tolerant care since persistent data can be effortlessly get and put away from any office, doctor's facility, or practice. Despite the fact, that Healthcare suppliers have been eased back to embrace the electronic restorative records, the proceeding with the slant towards this speedier, more proficient plan of action is drawing nearer (Haun, Lind, Shimada Simon, 2013). The doctors anxious to grasp this innovation will be at the front line of their industry with less record-related blunders and better administration. Bridging technologies real world implementation Secure Messaging influences to secure and affirm, easy to share, and consent restorative records in social insurance focuses (Whitacre, 2016). Secure informing causes Centers to gain by social insurance's computerized change by unraveling the worries examined already and conveying a work process device that offers something beyond encryption (Shenson, Cronin, Davis, Chen Jackson, 2015). Secure Messaging empowers the healthcare experts in any approved part to share, track, as well as control the wellbeing related records and documents safely. Additionally, Secure Messaging turns into a gainful apparatus, empowering clinicians to e-sign and approve work processes and trade substantial records without endangering information trustworthiness or protection. Secure Messaging incorporates effectively into regular email programs plus completely practical on cell phones, giving clients the secured information, emails, and document sharing. Sending secured messages has turned into an accepted method for imparting the overall population. It's advantageous and quick. The recipient is responsible for when to peruse and answer to a message, and overlooking it if it's not pressing, and answering when critical. Short and significant messages are a perfect method for imparting rapidly and effectively. The ascent of PDAs in the overall population likewise mirrored their utilization in social insurance. There are several examinations that finish up the ascent of cell phones as well as tablets among doctors. The pattern is prevalent to the point, that numerous healing centers have received BYOD approaches (Ben-AssuliLeshno, 2013). Albeit mechanically sharp specialists are bringing cell phones into their working environment, advancement in clinic correspondence hasn't definitely changed since the presentation of the pager. With such vast numbers of accessible alternatives and gadgets, no massive surprise, a breakdown in correspondence is a typical issue in clinics. Truth be told, as indicated by a Joint charge report, it's attached to over 70% of all detailed sentinel occasions in 2013. Patients have the privilege to get the duplicates of most restorative records. Specialists' notes, therapeutic test outcomes, lab reports as well as charging data should be provided if legitimately asked. Electronic records administration and programming framework make assuming quick and proficient to hunt, find and give those records (Peters Khan, 2014). Today, more than 45,000 patients also have agreed to accept the checking technique since at first taking off. Scanned medical records likewise have been examined by different methods for recognizable proof, for example, restorative cards with standardized identifications, however, chose palm filtering is more precise. Understanding the security of patients records is likewise banded together with numerous other healing facilities that have been arranged around the country. However, data between the doctor's facilities aren't shared as well as palm scanning systems aren't trying to therapeutic records. When examining the medical rec ords, Patient Charts and Quality Control or Management is fundamental. That is the reason we survey each picture to guarantee the lucidness and quality. Each picture is precisely examined to guarantee that nothing misses out amid the checking procedure. Checking medicinal records into an electronic shape has many advantages yet beginning this procedure can overpower (Palen, 2013). In case that medicinal services centers outsource the filtering and do it without anyone else's help, an extraordinary checking organization can offer the proficient counsel keeping in mind the end goal to make the progress as effortless as could be allowed. Pros and cons of bridging technologies entry point to EMR adoption Pros and cons of Secure Messaging Pros: With too much restorative and money related data coursing, the centers need to think about secure informing and record sharing arrangements that adjust to HIPAA prerequisites without trading off the usefulness and work process of their current email Pal, Biswas Mukhopadhyay, 2015). Secure Messaging coordinates effortlessly into regular email programs as well as is completely utilitarian on cell phones, furnishing your clients with secure informing, e-marks, document sharing, and in addition, messaging the following ideal in their current email utilizing the accessible email addresses (KazleyOzcan, 2013). Cons: Data ruptures happen for an assortment of reasons, counting from programmers, accidental email botches, deliberate information spillage, burglary or removal of tablets and electronic gadgets, and unapproved access to data servers and documents (Burmeister, 2017). The results of an unapproved revelation of patients private social insurance and budgetary data are noteworthy and incorporate powerful fines and punishments for rebelliousness claims and harmed notorieties. For instance, since 2009, secured wellbeing information of roughly 31.4 million individuals in the Australia and US has been traded off in security breaks, bringing about $25.1 billion in fines against the Medical or Healthcare Centers. Pros and cons of Scanned Medical Records Pros: The storage of therapeutic records is a region where electronic restorative records appear to have an edge. Healing facilities and medicinal suppliers regularly have distribution centers loaded with paper-based medical records. One big advantage of Scanned Medical Records is that this typeface is pretty much institutionalized and clear over all medical records (Choi, Kuo, Goodwin Lee, 2016). Scanned medical records save time as well as money of healthcare centers Be that as it may; specialists or their partners who are new to the accepted procedures of word handling innovation may discover it tedious to enter the medical records electronically. Other fundamental advantages of Scanned Medical Records are that it is very easy to impart them to different experts momentarily by means of electronic transmission and direct access to capacity framework. Cons: Scanned medical records have a few security vulnerabilities.Scanned medical records can be altered by hackers and the unauthorized individuals within the department can also gain access by breaking the electronic defense of the storage system. Scanned medical records can sometimes face the problem of accessibility due to system crashes and other electronic failures. Conclusion This study concludes that social insurance centers see the move towards the electronic information like a tradeoff amongst proficiency and protection. Examining and disposal of a paper-based medical records are attainable, as utilization of an electronic medical record that incorporates access to the previous therapeutic record as archive pictures is viewed as satisfactory by a larger part of the doctors in several clinical offices. Restorative records filtering experts have the ability to file and output any level of therapeutic records in an auspicious way as well as at a very sensible cost. The strict healthcare protection rules make the secure messaging informing an extreme pitch to mind suppliers. More secure informing is expected to live up to their desires. References Ben-Assuli, O., Leshno, M. (2013). Using Electronic Medical Records in Admission Decisions: A Cost Effectiveness Analysis.Decision Sciences, 44(3), 463-481. Burmeister, O. (2017). Further considerations in EMR adoption. Journal Of The Association For Information Science And Technology, 68(7), 1804-1804. Choi, J., Kuo, Y., Goodwin, J., Lee, J. (2016). Association of EMR Adoption with Minority Health Care Outcome Disparities in US Hospitals. Healthcare Informatics Research, 22(2), 101. DePasse, J., Chen, C., Sawyer, A., Jethwani, K., Sim, I. (2014). Academic Medical Centers as digital health catalysts. Healthcare, 2(3), 173-176. Faullant, R., Fuller, J., Matzler, K. (2012). Mobile Audience Interaction Explaining the Adoption of New Mobile Service Applications in Socially Enriched Environments. Engineering Management Research, 1(1). Haun, J., Lind, J., Shimada, S., Simon, S. (2013). EVALUATING SECURE MESSAGING FROM THE VETERAN PERSPECTIVE: INFORMING THE ADOPTION AND SUSTAINED USE OF A PATIENT-DRIVEN COMMUNICATION PLATFORM. Annals Of Anthropological Practice, 37(2), 57-74. Holden, W. (2014). Bridging the Culture Gap Between Healthcare IT and Medical Device Development. Biomedical Instrumentation Technology, 48(s2), 22-28. Kazley, A., Ozcan, Y. (2013). Organizational and Environmental Determinants of Hospital EMR Adoption: A National Study. Journal Of Medical Systems, 31(5), 375-384. McIntosh, B., Bishop, C. (2016). The need for excellence centres in clinical imaging. British Journal Of Healthcare Management, 22(3), 102-103. Ostrovsky, A., Barnett, M. (2014). Accelerating change: Fostering innovation in healthcare delivery at academic medical centers. Healthcare, 2(1), 9-13. Pal, S., Biswas, B., Mukhopadhyay, A. (2015). Framework to Analyze EMR - EHR Adoption at an Indian Healthcare Conglomerate. SSRN Electronic Journal. Palen, T. (2013). Personal Health Records and Medical Care UseReply. JAMA, 309(8), 767. Peters, S., Khan, M. (2014). Electronic health records: current and future use. Journal Of Comparative Effectiveness Research, 3(5), 515-522. Shenson, J., Cronin, R., Davis, S., Chen, Q., Jackson, G. (2015). Rapid growth in surgeons use of secure messaging in a patient portal. Surgical Endoscopy, 30(4), 1432-1440. Uzuntarla, Y. (2016). Analyzing of family healthcare centers usage. Balkan Military Medical Review, 19(3), 105. https://dx.doi.org/10.5455/bmmr.218736 Whitacre, B. (2016). The Influence of the Degree of Rurality on EMR Adoption, by Physician Specialty. Health Services Research, 52(2), 616-633.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy formulation-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Develop and Describe a Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) formulation and treatment plan for a Case Study. Answer: Background of the patient: The client in the case study is called James. He is a thin guy without any mentioned physical or mental disorder. However behavioural issues had been depicted by the client himself. He lives a happy family life with his wife and three children. They have financial stability as both are working. James work in a music company and his wife acts as registered nurse. Both have been in a stable relationship from the time of school and maintain a comfortable life in each others presence. However, most of the work in maintaining a proper social life is conducted by Jamess wife as he is not comfortable in socialising with people. He states that he lacks the courage to communicate with someone new in his daily life. He faces anxiety when any responsibilities on him regarding communication of performing any social duties arise. Her wife is very helpful and therefore she does all the social duties of the family without pressuring him or blaming him. He was working in small locally owned music st ore where few members worked previously and he developed bonding with them. He was comfortable with the slow pace of work and the warm relationships shared by all. However the company has been now taken over by national music Chain Company and work culture has changed. The fast paced work culture had become difficult for him to handle as it has exposed him to a wide number of customers with whom he needs to talk properly. From the childhood, his behaviour had not affected him much as he had been able to establish his career and a married life. However coming to this age, the problems of his shyness and inability talk at social level had aroused tension in him as he fears to lose his financial strength and also fears the embarrassments he has to go onwards from now on. Details of the problems and formulation: From the evaluation of the symptoms of the patients, the client is diagnosed to be suffering from social anxiety disorder. Dating back to childhood, it can be stated that he had suffered from selective mutism which is one of the forms of social anxiety disorders. As a phobia or communication, a child or an adult with this disorder in front of an individual person or a group of people is unable to speak properly although he has idea about what needs to be spoken to them (Lischenring et al., 2013). In simple words, they are fully capable of speaking but cannot speak in certain situations as they fear or become anxious before initiating the speech. It usually begins form the age of 2.7 to 4.1 years of age which is long before the mean age of social anxiety disorder arises. It gradually becomes apparent when the child enters a communal environment outside the family home for first time (Goldin et al., 2014). If not treated, it continues even to adulthood disrupting the development of qua lity life. Researchers over the years have identified the main causes of the disorder. Different trauma in childhood, minimal brain dysfunction or neuropsychological social cue processing disorder may be a cause. However no such cases are reported for him (Lischenring et al., 2013). The main causes which align with James upbringing is particular parent profile and parent-child relationship. As both the members have been reserved and his father was shy, he had adopted the traits in his cognitive development as researchers state that children pick up traits and characters form parents in their early life as they spend most of the time with them during their cognitive phase of development (Goldin et al., 2014. Until these days, his wife had done most of the work on the social front and therefore his symptoms of social anxiety disorder did not affect his life. He also could not make friends due to his issues of shyness and anxiety to speak to new people. However these are now affecting his professional life and he needs to handle the symptoms effectively. He has always escaped the situations of social communication as his wife had been proactive and considerate of his issues. However in the professional front, he needs to communicate with customers effectively to maintain sales and customer satisfaction. Therefore he has come to consultation centre. The different triggers which have been identified for the client are being introduced to other people (Handling new customers and also making new friends), having to say something in a formal as well as public situation (Like arranging and hosting social gathering), meeting people in authority (like in case of handling parent-teachers meeting in school for his children). Other triggers include feeling insecure and out of place in social situations and also getting embarrassed easily. Moreover others noticed were not meeting eyes and also making phone calls and others. All these need to be handled effectively to make hi m overcome the barriers. Treatment plan: Evidence based journals are of the opinion that cognitive development therapy has proved to be exceptionally beneficial for handling social anxiety disorders. After the completion of this therapy, people have been seen to suffer no longer from fear and anxiety before social communications. Appropriate therapy has been found to be successful in modifying peoples thoughts, feelings, behaviour as well as beliefs (Craske et al., 2014). While developing the treatment plan, the expert should be helping the client to identify the anxious thoughts which are contributing to the mute behaviour. He should be introducing strategies which would help him to be aware of his thoughts (Kocovskil et al. 2013). The strategies should be including recognizing his body symptoms of anxiety and identifying and challenging maladaptive beliefs. Moreover a coping plan would be developed which would help him to tackle his levels of distress (Mansson et al., 2015). Feelings of embarrassment, thinking himself to be incapable, feeling insecure are mainly results of anxiety and feelings of worry and these should be made to understand to the client. James would be taught new information through encouragement about his social skills, his inner powers, his capability to socialise well and empowering him with positive thoughts. James need to taken in what is taught to him by practicing them in homes and other social circles by means of continuous repetition. He would then be registering the new learning in his brain over and over again until it becomes automatic and habitual (Barlow et al., 2016). When James would have learnt properly, he would be able to think, act and feel differently. However this would take persistence, patience as well as practice. However the expert should mainly pay importance to the fact that the client remains adhered with the fact and make it a habit in his life to attain successful modifications of the behaviour. Proposed treatment plan: The treatment plan which should be followed by the expert for treatment of the client would be according to the Heimberg model. This would mainly comprise of 15 sessions with 60 minutes duration for each session. It would also comprise of 90 minutes of 1 session for the exposure. This treatment would require 4 months and would incorporate several important phases. The first phase is called the education about social anxiety. However, before that the expert should be sure that he has the ability to integrate the main elements of the interventions like exposure as well as cognitive restructuring (Bogels et al., 2014). He should make sure that he implements treatment in a manner which would not only be structured but also responsive to the needs of the client. In the first few sessions, the client needs to develop the ability to conceptualise his own social anxiety in the context of the model involving the primacy of cognition as well as negative consequences of avoidance and habituatio n. This would be completed in first two to three sessions of 60 minutes. The nest would be the establishing the hierarchy of feared situations. Here the client would develop the ability to help the client in constructing the hierarchy of feared and avoided social situations. With the help of the expert, he would rank them accordingly to establish the rate of degree or fear associated with it (Hedman et al., 2014). This would require 3 more sessions. The third phase would be the self monitoring phase where the client would be developing the ability to self monitor their anxiety and mood and thereby trying to troubleshoot any potential barriers. He should be doing this in his homework and it would require 2 sessions to confirm his adherence with the treatment model. The fourth is the step called cognitive restructuring which would require the expert to offer him illustrative examples stating the fact that they are not the events which are creating anxiety but are the interpretations of the events which are doing so. Experts should also appraise the validity of the clients thoughts rather than considering them as wrong (Dagoo et al., 2014). He would also help the clients to make connections between the emotions, behavioural and physiological reactions and help him to challenge the automatic thoughts. The fifth step would be exposure of the client to real life situations and debriefing after expos ure ensuring that all the perceptions of the clients have been explored and thereby providing feedback. This would require 2 sessions of 90 minutes. The last three of four therapies would mainly address the core beliefs which would help them to maintain their social anxiety properly in nature. One more 90 minutes session would be important to assure the overall progress of the effect of the treatments and to make further treatment based measures and discuss the issue of relapse (ElAlaqui et al., 2015). This also helps James to employ skills which he has learned, after treatment ends. References: Barlow, D. H., Allen, L. B., Choate, M. L. (2016). Toward a Unified Treatment for Emotional DisordersRepublished Article.Behavior therapy,47(6), 838-853. Bgels, S. M., Wijts, P., Oort, F. J., Sallaerts, S. J. (2014). Psychodynamic psychotherapy versus cognitive behavior therapy for social anxiety disorder: an efficacy and partial effectiveness trial.Depression and anxiety,31(5), 363-373. Craske, M. G., Niles, A. N., Burklund, L. J., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Vilardaga, J. C. P., Arch, J. J., ... Lieberman, M. D. (2014). Randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy for social phobia: outcomes and moderators.Journal of consulting and clinical psychology,82(6), 1034. Dag, J., Asplund, R. P., Bsenko, H. A., Hjerling, S., Holmberg, A., Westh, S., ... Andersson, G. (2014). Cognitive behavior therapy versus interpersonal psychotherapy for social anxiety disorder delivered via smartphone and computer: A randomized controlled trial.Journal of anxiety disorders,28(4), 410-417. El Alaoui, S., Hedman, E., Kaldo, V., Hesser, H., Kraepelien, M., Andersson, E., ... Lindefors, N. (2015). Effectiveness of Internet-based cognitivebehavior therapy for social anxiety disorder in clinical psychiatry.Journal of consulting and clinical psychology,83(5), 902 Goldin, P. R., Ziv, M., Jazaieri, H., Hahn, K., Heimberg, R., Gross, J. J. (2013). Impact of cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder on the neural dynamics of cognitive reappraisal of negative self-beliefs: randomized clinical trial.JAMA psychiatry,70(10), 1048-1056. Goldin, P. R., Ziv, M., Jazaieri, H., Weeks, J., Heimberg, R. G., Gross, J. J. (2014). Impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder on the neural bases of emotional reactivity to and regulation of social evaluation.Behaviour research and therapy,62, 97-106. Hedman, E., El Alaoui, S., Lindefors, N., Andersson, E., Rck, C., Ghaderi, A., ... Ljtsson, B. (2014). Clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Internet-vs. group-based cognitive behavior therapy for social anxiety disorder: 4-year follow-up of a randomized trial.Behaviour research and therapy,59, 20-29. Kocovski, N. L., Fleming, J. E., Hawley, L. L., Huta, V., Antony, M. M. (2013). Mindfulness and acceptance-based group therapy versus traditional cognitive behavioral group therapy for social anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled trial.Behaviour research and therapy,51(12), 889-898. Leichsenring, F., Salzer, S., Beutel, M. E., Herpertz, S., Hiller, W., Hoyer, J., ... Ritter, V. (2013). Psychodynamic therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in social anxiety disorder: a multicenter randomized controlled trial.American Journal of Psychiatry,170(7), 759-767. Leichsenring, F., Salzer, S., Beutel, M. E., Herpertz, S., Hiller, W., Hoyer, J., ... Ritter, V. (2014). Long-term outcome of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in social anxiety disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry,171(10), 1074-1082. Mnsson, K. N., Frick, A., Boraxbekk, C. J., Marquand, A. F., Williams, S. C. R., Carlbring, P., ... Furmark, T. (2015). Predicting long-term outcome of Internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy for social anxiety disorder using fMRI and support vector machine learning.Translational psychiatry,5(3), e530.

Motivational Process free essay sample

Dweck argues that this approach has important implications for practice and the design of interventions to change maladaptive motivational processes. She presents a compelling proposal for explaining motivational influences on gender differences in mathematics achievement and observes that empirically based interventions may prevent current achievement discrepancies. The Editors Most research on effective learning and performance of cognitive tasks analyzes the particular cognitive skills required to succeed at those tasks. In contrast, the focus here is on motivational processes that affect success on cognitive tasks. That is, the focus is on psychological factors, other than ability, that determine how effectively the individual acquires and uses skills. It has long been known that factors other than ability influence whether children seek or avoid challenges, whether they persist or withdraw in the face of difficulty, and whether they use and develop their skills effectively. However, the components and bases of adaptive motivational patterns have been poorly understood. We will write a custom essay sample on Motivational Process or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As a resuit, commonsense analyses have been limited and have not provided a basis for effective practices. Indeed, many commonsense beliefs have been called into question or seriously qualified by recent researchfor example, the belief that large amounts of praise and success will establish, maintain, or reinstate adaptive patterns, or that brighter children have more adaptive patterns and thus are more likely to choose personally challenging tasks or to persist in the face of difficulty. In the past 10 to 15 years a dramatic hange has taken place in the study of motivation. This change has resulted in a coherent, replicable, and educationally relevant body of findingsand in a clearer understanding of motivational phenomena. During this time, the emphasis has shifted to a social-cognitive approachwaway from external contingencies, on the one hand, and global, internal states on the other. It has shifted to an emphasis on cognitive mediators, that is, to how children construe the situ ation, interpret events in the situation, and process 1040 information about the situation. Although external contingencies and internal affective states are by no means ignored, they are seen as part of a process whose workings are best penetrated by focusing on organizing cognitive variables. Specifically, the social-cognitive approach has allowed us to (a) characterize adaptive and maladaptive patterns, (b) explain them in terms of specific underlying processes, and thus (c) begin to provide a rigorous conceptual and empirical basis for intervention and practice. Adaptive and Maladaptive Motivational Patterns The study of motivation deals with the causes of goaloriented activity (Atkinson, 1964; Beck, 1983; Dollard Miller, 1950; Hull, 1943; Veroff, 1969). Achievement motivation involves a particular class of goalsthose involving competenceand these goals appear to fall into two classes: (a) learning goals, in which individuals seek to increase their competence, to understand or master something new, and (b) performance goals, in which individuals seek to gain favorable judgments of their competence or avoid negative judgments of their competence (Dweck Elliott, 1983; NichoUs, 1984; Nicholls Dweck, 1979). Adaptive motivational patterns are those that promote the establishment, maintenance, and attainment of personally challenging and personally valued achievement goals. Maladaptive patterns, then, are associated with a failure to establish reasonable, valued goals, to maintain effective striving toward those goals, or, ultimately, to attain valued goals that are potentially within ones reach. Research has clearly documented adaptive and maladaptive patterns of achievement behavior. The adaptive (mastery-oriented) pattern is characterized by challenge seeking and high, effective persistence in the face of obstacles. Children displaying this pattern appear to enjoy exerting effort in the pursuit of task mastery. In contrast, the maladaptive (helpless) pattern is characterized by challenge avoidance and low persistence in the face of difficulty. Children displaying this pattern tend to evidence negative affect (such as anxiety) and negative self-cogniCorrespondenceconcerningthis article shouldbe addressedto CarolS. Dweck,Departmentof Psychology,UniversityofIllinois, 603 E. Daniel, Champaign, IL 61820. l The wordperformancewill be used in severalways,not only in connection with performancegoals. It will alsobe used to refer to the childs task activity(performanceof a task) and to the product of that activity (levelof performance). The meaning should be clear from the context. October 1986 9 American Psychologist Copyrisht 1986 by the American PsychologicalAssociation, Inc. 0003-066X/86/$00. 75 Vol. 41, No. 10, 1040-1048 Table 1 Achievement Goals and Achievement Behavior Theory of intelligence Goal orientation Confidence in present ability Behavior pattern Entity theory (Intelligence is fixed) gt; Performance goal (Goal is to gain positive judgments/avoid negative judgments of competence) If high gt; Mastery-oriented Seek challenge but High persistence If low ~ Helpless Avoid challenge Low persistence gt; Learning goal Incremental theory (Intelligence is malleable) (Goal is to increase competence) If high gt; Mastery-oriented ioOr ~ Seek challenge (that fosters learning) High persistence tions when they confront obstacles (e. g. , Ames, 1984; C. Diener Dweck, 1978, 1980; Dweck Reppucci, 1973; Nicholls, 1975). Although children displaying the different patterns do not differ in intellectual ability, these patterns can have profound effects on cognitive performance. In experiments conducted in both laboratory and classroom settings, it has been shown that children with the maladaptive pattern are seriously hampered in the acquisition and display of cognitive skills when they meet obstacles. Children with the adaptive pattern, by contrast, seem undaunted or even seem to have their performance facilitated by the increased challenge. If not ability, then what are the bases of these patterns? Most recently, research has suggested that childrens goals in achievement situations differentially foster the two patterns. That is, achievement situations afford a choice of goals, and the one the child preferentially adopts predicts the achievement pattern that child will display. Table 1 summarizes the conceptualization that is emerging from the research. BasieaUy, childrens theories of intelligence appear to orient them toward different goals: Children who believe intelligence is a fixed trait tend to orient toward gaining favorable judgments of that trait (performance goals), whereas children who believe intelligence is a malleable quality tend to orient toward developing that quality (learning goals). The goals then appear to set up the different behavior patterns. 2 effort. Further, this research shows how a focus on ability judgments can result in a tendency to avoid and withdraw from challenge, whereas a focus on progress through effort creates a tendency to seek and be energized by challenge. Although relatively few studies as yet have explicitly induced and compared (or measured and compared) learning versus performance goals (see M. Bandura Dweck, 1985; Elliott Dweck, 1985; FarreU Dweck, 1985; Leggett, 1985, 1986), many have manipulated the salience and value of performance goals, and hence the relative value of the two types of goals. This has been done, for example, by instituting a competitive versus individual reward structure (e. g. , Ames, 1984; Ames, Ames, Felker, 1977), by varying the alleged diagnosticity of the task vis vis important abilities (e. g. , Nicholls, 1975), by introducing an audience or evaluator versus allowing the individual to perform privately or focusing his or her attention on the task (e. . , Brockner Hulton, 1978; Carver Scheier, 1981; E. Diener SruU, 1979), and by presenting the task with test instructions versus game or neutral instructions (e. g. , Entin Raynor, 1973; Lekarczyk Hill, 1969; McCoy, 1965; Sarason, 1972). Taken together, the results suggest that highlighting performance goals relative to learning goals can have the following effects on achievement behavior. Goals and Task Choice Learning and Performance Goals Contrasted How and why do the different goals foster the different patterns? How do they shape task choice and task pursuit to facilitate or impede cognitive performance? The research reviewed below indicates that with performance goals, the entire task choice and pursuit process is built around childrens concerns about their ability level. In contrast, with learning goals the choice and pursuit processes involve a focus on progress and mastery through 2 See M. Bandura and Dweck (1985), Dweck and Elliott (1983), and Leggett (1985) for a more extensive treatment of childrens theories of intelligence. The present article will focus on achievement goals and their allied behavior patterns. Appropriately challenging tasks are often the ones that are best for utilizing and increasing ones abilities. Recent research has shown that performance goals work against the pursuit of challenge by requiring that childrens perceptions of their ability be high (and remain high) before the children will desire a challenging task (M. Bandura Dweck, 1985; Elliott Dweck, 1985). That is, if the goal is to obtain a favorable judgment of ability, then children need to be certain their ability is high before displaying it for judgment. Otherwise, they will choose tasks that conceal their ability or protect it from negative evaluation. For example, when oriented toward performance goals, individuals with low assessments of their ability are often found to choose personally easy tasks on which success is ensured or excessively difficult ones on 1041 October 1986 9 American Psychologist which failure does not signify low ability (M. Bandura Dweck, 1985; Elliott Dweck, 1985; see also deCharms Carpenter, 1968; Moulton, 1965; Nicholls, 1984; Raynor Smith, 1966). Even individuals with high assessments of their ability may sacrifice learning opportunities (that involve risk of errors) for opportunities to look smart (Elliott Dweck, 1985; see Covington, 1983). Thus, performance goals appear to promote defensive strategies that can interfere with challenge seeking. With learning goals, however, even if childrens assessment of their present ability is low, they will tend to choose challenging tasks that foster learning (M. Bandura Dweck, 1985; Elliott Dweck, 1985). Specifically, in studies by EUiott and Dweck (1985), in which learning and performance goals were experimentally manipulated, and by M. Bandura and Dweck (1985), in which learning and performance goals were assessed, children with learning goals chose challenging tasks regardless of whether they believed themselves to have high or low ability (see also Meyer, Folkes, Weiner, 1976; Nicholls, 1984). Thus with a learning goal, children are willing to risk displays of ignorance in order to acquire skills and knowledge. Instead of calculating their exact ability level and how it will be judged, they can think more about the value of the skill to be developed or their interest in the task to be undertaken. Goals and Task Pursuit Outcome interpretation and impact. Although within a performance goal childrens confidence in their ability needs to remain high to sustain task involvement, that confidence is difficult to maintain. Research shows that children with performance goals are more likely to interpret negative outcomes in terms of their ability. That is, they attribute errors or failures to a lack of ability (Ames, 1984; Ames et al. , 1977; Elliott Dweck, 1985) and view them as predictive of continued failure (Anderson Jennings, 1980). This in turn tends to result in defensive withdrawal of effort or debilitation in the face of obstacles (Covington Omelich, 1979; Elliott Dweck, 1985; Frankl Snyder, 1978; Nicholls, 1976, 1984; see also Berglas Jones, 1970; Weiner, 1972, 1974). In contrast, children with learning goals tend to use obstacles as a cue to increase their effort or to analyze and vary their strategies (Ames, 1984; Ames et al. 1977; Elliott Dweck, 1985; Leggett, 1986; Nicholls, 1984), which often results in improved performance in the face of obstacles. That is, the more children focus on learning or progress, the greater the likelihood of maintaining effective strategies (or improving their strategies) under difficulty or failure (A. Bandura Schunk, 1981; Elliott Dweck, 1985; Farrell Dweck, 1985; see also Anderson Jennings, 1980; C. Diener Dweck, 1978). Satisfaction with outcomes. Once again, within the performance goal versus learning goal framework, the focus is on ability versus effort. For performance-goal children, satisfaction with outcomes is based on the ability they believe they have displayed, whereas for learninggoal children, satisfaction with outcomes is based on the 1042 effort they have exerted in pursuit of the goal. Ames et al. (1977), for example, found that with an autonomous reward structure (learning goal), childrens pride in their performance in both the success and the failure conditions was related to the degree of effort they perceived themselves to have exerted. However, within the competitive reward structure (performance goal), pride in performance was related to the degree of ability (and luck) they believed themselves to have. Thus, failure within a performance goal, because it signifies low ability, yields little basis for personal pride or satisfaction. Indeed, within a performance goal, high effort may be negatively related to satisfaction: Leggett (1986) showed that children with performance goals are significantly more likely than children with learning goals to view effort per se as indicative of low ability (see also Jagacinski Nicholls, 1982; Surber, 1984). Findings by M. Bandura and Dweck (1985) also support the differential emphasis on effort versus ability as the basis for satisfaction within learning and performance goals. When asked to indicate their affective reactions to low-effort mastery, children with learning goals were more likely than children with performance goals to choose bored or disappointed as opposed to proud or relieved. Finally, within a performance framework, childrens own outcome satisfaction and that of their peers may be in conflict. Results from the Ames et al. 1977) study are consonant with this view. Childrens own satisfaction and perceived others satisfaction with performance were negatively correlated under the competitive reward structure (-. 70) but not in the autonomous reward structure (. 06), even though their relative outcomes were identical in the two conditions. In addition, in rating how deserving of rewards (stars) both persons were, given their level of performance, children were more magnanim ous toward the poorer performer (whether it was self or other) in the noncompetitive condition than they were in the competitive one. Indeed, in the noncompetitive condition, they even awarded the losing other slightly more stars than they awarded themselves. Intrinsic motivation. It has been noted that persistence in the face of obstacles is made more difficult within a performance goal because obstacles tend to cast doubt on the childs ability and hence to call into question goal attainment (favorable ability judgments). Persistence is also made more difficult by the fact that intrinsic motivational factorssuch as task interest or the enjoyment of effortmay be more difficult to access within a performance goal. That is, effort in the face of uncertainty appears to be experienced as aversive for children with performance goals, and worry about goal attainment may well overwhelm any intrinsic interest the task may hold for the child (Ames et al. , 1977; M. Bandura Dweck, 1985; Elliott Dweck, 1985). Indeed, performance goals may well create the very conditions that have been found to undermine intrinsic interest (Deci Ryan, 1980; Lepper, 1980; Lepper Greene, 1978; Maehr Stallings, 1972; Ryan, Mires, Koestner, 1983). October 1986 9 American Psychologist In concluding this section on goal orientation and task pursuit, we might ask: Do childrens goal orientations play a role in what and how they actually learn in classroom settings? One of the hallmarks of effective learning (and of intelligent thinking) is the tendency to apply or transfer what one has learned to novel tasks that embody similar underlying principles. In a recent study, Farrell and Dweck (1985) examined the relationship between childrens goal orientations and transfer of learning. As a week-long unit in their regular science classes, eighth-grade children were taught one of three scientific principles by means of self-instructional booklets. They were then tested for their generalization of this learning to tasks involving the two (conceptually related) principles that had not been taught. The results showed that children who had learning goals for the unit, compared to those who had performance goals, (a) attained significantly higher scores on the transfer test (and this was true for children who had high and low pretest scores); (b) roduced about 50% more work on their transfer tests, suggesting that they were more active in the transfer process; and (c) produced more rulegenerated answers on the test even when they failed to reach the transfer criterion, again suggesting more active attempts to apply what they had learned to the solution of novel problems. To summarize, a performance goal focuses children on issues of ability. Within this goal, childrens c onfidence in their current ability must be high and must remain high if they are to choose appropriately challenging tasks and pursue them in effective ways. Yet the same focus on ability makes their confidence in their ability fragile-even the mere exertion of effort calls ability into question. A strong orientation toward this goal can thus create a tendency to avoid challenge, to withdraw from challenge, or to show impaired performance in the face of challenge. Ironically, then, an overconcern with ability may lead children to shun the very tasks that foster its growth. In contrast, a learning goal focuses children on effort-effort as a means of utilizing or activating their ability, of surmounting obstacles, and of increasing their ability. Not only is effort perceived as the means to accomplishment, it is also the factor that engenders pride and satisfaction with performance. The adoption of learning goals thus encourages children to explore, initiate, and pursue tasks that promote intellectual growth. The Relation of Ability and Motivation Does Ability Predict Motivational Patterns? One might suppose that children who had the highest IQ scores, achievement test scores, and grades would be the ones who had by far the highest expectancies for future test scores and grades, as well as for performance on novel experimental tasks. Surprisingly often, this is not the case. In fact, one of the things that makes the study of motivation particularly intriguing is that measures of childrens actual competence do not strongly predict their confidence of future attainment (M. Bandura Dweck, October 1986 9 American Psychologist 1985; Crandall, 1969; Stipek Hoffman, 1980; see also Phillips, 1984). Indeed, M. Bandura and Dweck found that their low-confidence children tended to have somewhat higher achievement test scores than their high-confidence group. Interestingly, the low-confidence children did not have poorer opinions of their past attainment or abilities but faced the upcoming task with low expectancies of absolute and relative performance. One might also suppose that high-achieving children would be much less likely than low achievers, when encountering an obstacle, to attribute their difficulty to a lack of ability and to show deteriorated performance. But this supposition, too, is often contradicted by the evidence (e. g. , Licht Dweck, 1984; Stipek Hoffman, 1980; see also C. Diener Dweck, 1978, 1980). A tendency toward unduly low expectancies (CrandaU, 1969; Stipek Hoffman, 1980), challenge avoidance (Licht, Linden, Brown, Sexton, 1984; see also Leggett, 1985), ability attributions for failure (Licht Shapiro, 1982; Nicholls, 1979), and debilitation under failure (Licht et al. , 1984; Licht Dweck, 1984) has been especially noted in girls, particularly bright girls. 3 Indeed, some researchers have found a negative correlation for girls between their actual ability and these maladaptive patterns (Crandall, 1969; Licht et al. , 1984; Licht Dweck, 1984; Licht Shapiro, 1982; Stipek Hoffman, 1980). An extensive study of sex differences in achievement cognitions and responses to failure recently completed by Licht et al. (1984) yields illustrative evidence. On the basis of their grades, Licht divided her subjects into A, B, C, and D students and, among other measures, administered a novel concept formation task. A significant sex difference was found among the A students (and only among the A students) in their response to failure, with the A girls showing the greatest debilitation of the eight groups and the A boys being the only group to show any facilitation. In addition, Licht found a strong sex difference in task preferences between A girls and A boys: The A girls much preferred tasks they knew they were good at, whereas A boys preferred ones they would have to work harder to master. It is also interesting to note that in Leggetts (1985) study of bright junior high school students, there was a greater tendency for girls than boys to subscribe to an entity theory of intelligence (smartness as a fixed trait, a static entity) and for those who did to choose a performance goal that avoided challenge. Again, it is not the case that these girls are unaware of their attainments (Licht Dweck, 1984; Nicholls, 1979; Parsons, Meece, Adler, Kaczala, 1982), but knowledge of past successes does not appear to arm them for confrontations with future challenges. For example, in a study by Licht and Dweck (1984) that examined the 3It is important to note that sex differences,like most individual differences,are by no means found in everystudy. However,when sex differencesare found,the sameonesare typicallyfound. Thus,the pattern describedis a recurrent one that has been foundin many studiesfrom many differentlaboratories. 1043 impact of initial confusion (vs. no confusion) on subsequent learning, high-achieving girls rated themselves as being bright but still showed greater debilitation than lowachieving girls. Whereas in the no-confusion condition, the brighter the girl (by her own self-rating and by IQ score), the more likely she was to master the new material (r = . 7), in the confusion condition, the brighter the girl, the less likely she was to reach the mastery criterion (r = -. 38, Paifflt; . 02). (For boys in this study the correlation between self-rated ability and task performance tended to increase from the no-confusion to the confusion condition: rs . 15 and . 34, respectively. ) In short, being a high achiever and knowing one has done well in the past does not appear to translate directly into high confidence in ones abilities when faced with future challenges or current difficu lties. Nor does it clearly predict the maintenance of ones ability to perform or learn under these conditions. It is apparent, then, that a maladaptive motivational pattern is not the sole province of the low-achieving, failure-prone child. Does Motivational Pattern Predict Ability Over Time? If there is a sizable proportion of high achievers with maladaptive motivational patterns (see Phillips, 1984), and if these patterns are important to achievement, then why are these children still high achievers? Drops in achievement can result from performance debilitation or task avoidance. That is, both the presence of failure or the opportunity to avoid challenging subject areas may lead to cumulative skill deficits in children with maladaptive patterns. For good students, grade school may not provide either of these. It may present neither tasks that are difficult enough to create failure and debilitation nor the choice of not pursuing a given subject area. For these reasons, maladaptive patterns may not yet typically come into play. Licht and Dweck (1984) showed, however, in an experiment conducted in classrooms, that when confusion does accompany the initial attempt to learn new material, mastery of the material is seriously impaired for these children. It may be that only in subsequent school years will these maladaptive tendencies have their impact on achievement, when children with these patterns may elect to avoid challenging courses of study, drop out of courses that pose a threat of failure, or show impairment of performance under real difficulty. Thus, our experimental studies may create conditions that good students will encounter fully only in later years but that reveal underlying patterns already in place in the grade school years. In the following section, sex differences in motivational patterns and achievement are used as a means of exploring the ways in which motivational patterns can affect achievement, and ability, over time. The Case of Sex Differences in Mathematical Versus Verbal Achievement Discrepancies between males and females in mathematical and verbal achievement have long been a source of puzzlement and concern. Although in the grade school 1044 years girls equal boys in mathematical achievement (and surpass them in verbal achievement), during the junior high and high school years, boys pull ahead and remain ahead in mathematical achievement (Donlon, Ekstrom Lockheed, 1976; Fennema Sherman, 1977; Hilton Berglund, 1974; Maccoby Jacklin, 1974). A wide assortment of explanations has been advanced, ranging from claims about the nature of the genetic equipment (Benbow Stanley, 1980) to arguments about the impact of sex role stereotypes (Sherman Fennema, 1977). Without ruling out other explanations, one can add a motivational explanation based on the research findings reviewed above. Specifically, the fact that the two sexes often display different motivational patterns and the fact that the academic subject areas in question differ in major ways aside from the skills they require suggest that perhaps motivational patterns contribute to these achievement discrepancies. This suggestion is made even more plausible when one considers that (a) sex differences in mathematical achievement are greatest among the brightest students (Astin, 1974; Fox, 1976) and (b) sex ifferences in motivational patterns and associated behavior appear to be greatest among the brightest students. As noted above, bright girls compared to bright boys (and compared to less bright girls) seem to display shakier expectancies, lower preference for novel or challenging tasks, more frequent failure attributions to lack of ability, and more frequent debilitation in the face o f failure or confusion (Licht et al. , 1984; Licht Dweck, 1984; Stipek Hoffman, 1980). Moreover, some characteristics of mathematical versus verbal areas are precisely those that would work against individuals with this pattern but that would favor individuals with the more confident, challengeseeking pattern (see Licht Dweck, 1984, for a more detailed discussion of these characteristics). Specifically, new units and courses in mathematics, particularly after the grade school years, tend to involve new skills, new concepts, or even entirely new conceptual frameworks (for example, algebra, geometry, calculus). These new skills and concepts are not only different from but are often more difficult than those the child has mastered in the past. In the verbal areas, however, once the basic skills of reading and writing are mastered, one does not as typically encounter leaps to qualitatively different tasks, tasks requiring mastery of completely unfamiliar verbal skills. Increments in difficulty appear to be more gradual, and new units or courses often simply ask the student to bring existing skills to bear on new material. This general difference between mathematical and verbal areas may have several important psychological consequences. For one thing, as children ponder future math courses, the greater novelty and difficulty of the future courses compared to present ones would be expected to precipitate declines in confidence for bright girls, but not for bright boys. Indeed, in the study cited above, Parsons et al. (1982) found significant sex differences in expectancies for future math courses even when females October 1986 9 American Psychologist nd males were equivalent in their perceptions of their present mathematical ability and in their expectancies for their present math courses. Task preference data as well suggest that a greater discrepancy between present and future tasks in mathematical versus verbal areas may render math less appealing to bright gifts, but perhaps more appealing to bright boys. Bright girls, it will be recalled, tend to prefer tasks they are fairly certain hey are good a t and can do well on, whereas bright boys are more attracted to tasks that pose some challenge to mastery (Licht et al. , 1984; see also Leggett, 1985). Yet another consequence of this proposed mathverbal difference is that in math, children are more likely to experience failure or confusion at the beginning of a new unit or course. This might be expected to produce debilitation (or escape attempts, such as course-dropping) in bright girls but perseverance in bright boys. And, indeed, support for this prediction of differential debilitation comes from the Licht and Dweck (1984) study, described earlier, in which confusion (or no confusion) attended the introduction of new subject matter, and from the Licht et al. (1984) study in which obstacles were encountered in the acquisition of a new skill. In both cases, bright girls showed the most impairment and bright boys the most facilitation. In short, mathematics appears to differ from verbal areas in ways that would make it more compatible with the motivational patterns of bright boys and less compatible with those of bright girls. Thus, given two children with equal mathematical aptitude and mathematical achievement in the grade school years, but with differing motivational patterns, we would predict precisely the sex differences in course taking and long-term achievement that are found to occur (Donlon et al. , 1976; Fennema Sherman, 1977; Hilton Berglund, 1974). With increasing age, children make increasingly consequential decisions, and maladaptive patterns may begin to impair their achievement and constrict their future choices. Maladaptive patterns such as those displayed by bright girls may even fail to foster intellectual growth in general. In a 38-year longitudinal study of IQ change (measured at mean ages of 4. 1, 13. 8, 29. 7, and 41. 6), Kangas and Bradway (1971) found that for males the higher the preadult level, the more they gained in later years, whereas for females the higher the preadult level, the less they gained in later years. In fact, of the six groups in the study (males and females with high, medium, and low preadult IQs), all showed surprisingly large gains over the years (between 15 and 30 points) except the high-IQ females, who showed little gain (about 5 points). Although there are many possible interpretations of these results, the general picture suggests that bright females, compared to bright males, are not thriving. Our analysis suggests that appropriate motivational interventions may help prevent some of the achievement discrepancies between the sexes. Let us turn, then, to the experiences or interventions that appear to foster adaptive motivational patterns. October 1986 9 American Psychologist Experiences That Foster Adaptive Patterns The question for motivational interventions is: What are we aiming for and how do we get there? When one considers the necessity for, but the vulnerability of, confidence within a performance goal framework, one is led to the position that challenge seeking and persistence are better facilitated by attempts to foster a learning goal orientation than by attempts to instill confidence within a performance framework. Nonetheless, much current educational practice alms at creating high-confidence performers and attempts to do so by programming frequent success and praise. (See Brown, Palincsar, Purcell, 1984, for a discussion of this issue. How did this situation arise? I propose that misreading# of two popular phenomena may have merged to produce this approach. First was the growing belief in positive reinforcement (interpreted as frequent praise for small units of behavior) as the way to promote desirable behavior. Yet a deeper understanding of the principles of reinforcement would not lead one to expect that frequent praise for short, easy tasks would create a desire for long, challenging ones or promote persistence in the face of failure. On the contrary, continuous reinforcement schedules are associated with poor resistance to extinction, and errorless learning, as evidenced by Terraces (1969) renowned pigeons, has been found to produce bizarre emotional responses following nonreinforcement. Second was a growing awareness of teacher expectancy effects. As is well known, the teacher expectancy effect refers to the phenomenon whereby teachers impressions about students ability (e. g. manipulated via test information) actually affect students performance, such that the students performance falls more in line with the teachers expectancies (Rosenthal Jacobson, 1968). The research on this self-fulfilling prophecy raised serious concerns that teachers were hampering the intellectual achievement of children they labeled as having low ability. One remedy was thought to lie in making low-ability children feel like high-ability children by means of a high success rate. In light of the implications that were drawn from teacher xpectancy effects, it is interesting to contrast them with the views of the original researchers (see, e. g. , Rosenthal, 1971, 1974; Rosenthal Jacobson, 1968). Unlike many of their followers, they appeared to frame their work within (and provide teachers with) an incremental theory of intelligence. Specifically, in the Rosenthai and Jacobson (1968) study, teachers were told that the test for intellectual blooming indicated that the target children would show remarkable gains in intellectual competence during the school year. Moreover, when hypothesizing possible mechanisms through which gains were produced, the original researchers thought in terms of teachers having stimulated intellectual growth through challenge. And, in reviewing work on undesirable expectancy effects, they lamented that lows seemed to be given too little work, and work that was too easy, to spur cognitive gains (Rosenthal, 1971). (See also, Brown et al. , 1045 1984, who argued cogently that it is not ill treatment, but a failure to teach the necessary high-level skills, that accounts for much of the achievement deficit of low-reading groups. Thus, these original researchers were oriented toward producing intellectual growth in children rather than simply giving children an illusion of intelligence. The motivational research is clear in indicating that continued success on personally easy tasks (or even on difficult tasks within a performance framework) is ineffective in producing stable confidence, challenge seeking, and persistence (Dweck, 1975; Relich, 1983). Indeed, such procedures have sometimes been found to backfire by producing lower confidence in ability (Meyer, 1982; Meyer et al, 1979). Rather, the procedures that bring about more adaptive motivational patterns are the ones that incorporate challenge, and even failure, within a learning-oriented context and that explicitly address underlying motivational mediators (Andrews Debus, 1978; A. Bandura Schunk, 1981; Covington, 1983; Dweck, 1975; Fowler Peterson, 1981; Relich, 1983; Rhodes, 1977; Schunk, 1982). For example, retraining childrens attributions for failure (teaching them to attribute their failures to effort or strategy instead of ability) has been shown to produce sizable changes in persistence in the face of failure, changes that persist over time and generalize across tasks (Andrews Debus, 1978; Dweck, 1975; Fowler Peterson, 1981; Relich, 1983; Rhodes, 1977). Thus far, only short-term experimental manipulations of childrens goal orientations have been attempted (Ames, 1984; Ames et al. , 1977; Elliott Dweck, 1985). Although these goal manipulations have been successful in producing the associated motivational patterns, much research remains to be conducted on how best to produce lasting changes in goal orientation. To date, motivational interventions, such as attribution retraining, have been conducted primarily with less successful students (those who display both a lag in skill level and a maladaptive response to difficulty). Yet, the earlier discussion suggests that some of the brightest students, who in grade school as yet show little or no obvious impairment in the school environment, may be prime candidates for such motivational interventions. Among these are children (e. g. , bright girls) who have had early, consistent, and abundant success yet, despite this (or perhaps even because of this), do not relish the presence or the prospect of challenge. implications for practice and ameliorative interventions. Indeed, ways ofappropriately incorporating issues ofselfconcept into education have long been sought. The social-cognitive approach, by identifying particular selfconceptions (e. g. childrens theories of their intelligence) and by detailing their relationship to behavior, may well provide the means. In addition, there is growing evidence that the conceptualization presented here is relevant not only to effectiveness on cognitive tasks but also to effectiveness in social arenas. For example, childrens attributions for social outcomes predict whether they respond adaptively to rejection (Goetz Dweck, 1980), and childrens social goals are related to their popularity among their classmates (Taylor Asher, 1985). Thus the present approach may illuminate adaptive and maladaptive patterns in diverse areas of childrens lives and may thereby provide a basis for increasingly effective socialization and instructional practices across these areas. REFERENCES Ames, C. (1984). Achievementattributions and self-instructionsunder competitiveand individualisticgoal structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 478-487. Ames,C. , Ames,R. , Felker,D. W, (1977). Effectsof competitivereward structure and valence of outcome on childrens achievementattributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 1-8. Anderson, C. A. , Jennings, D. L. (1980). When experiencesof failure promote expectationsof success: The impact of attributing failureto ineffectivestrategies. Journal of Personality, 48, 393-407. Andrews, G. R. , Debus, R. L. (1978). Persistence and the causal perceptions of failure: Modifyingcognitiveattributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 154-166. Astin, H. (1974). Sexdifferencesin scientificand mathematicalprecocity. In J. C. Stanley, D. P. Keating, L. H. Fox (Eds. ), Mathematical talent: Discovery,descriptionand development. Baltimore,MD Johns Hopkins UniversityPress. Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. Bandura, A. , Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, selfefficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586-598. Bandura, M. , Dweek, C. S. (1985). Self-conceptions and motivation: Conceptions of intelligence, choice of achievement goals, and patterns of cognition, affect, and behavior. Manuscript submitted for publi- Summary and Conclusion Motivational processes have been shown to affect (a) how well children can deploy their existing skills and knowledge, (b) how well they acquire new skills and knowledge, and (c) how well they transfer these new skills and knowledge to novel situations. This approach does not deny individual differences in present skills and knowledge or in native ability or aptitude. It does suggest, however, that the use and growth of that ability can be appreciably influenced by motivational factors. The social-cognitive approach, with its emphasis on specific mediating processes, has generated important 1046 cation. Beck,R. C. (1983). Motivation: Theoriesand principles. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-HaU. Benbow,C. P. , Stanley,J; C. (1980). Sex differencesin mathematics ability: Fact or artifact. Science, 10. 1262-1264. Berglas, S. , Jones, E. E. (1970). Drug choice as a self-handicapping strategyin responseto noncontingentsuccess. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 405-417. Brockner,J. , Hulton,A. J. B. (1978). How to reversethe viciouscycle of low self-esteem:The importance of attentional focus. Journal of Experimental Psychology 14, 564-578. Brown,A. L. , Palincsar,A. S. , Purcell,L. (1984). Poor readers:Teach dont label. In U. Neisser(Ed. ), The academicperformanceof minority children: A new perspective. Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum. Carver, C. S. , Scheier,M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theoryapproach to human behavior. NewYork:Springer. Verlag. Covington, M. V. (1983). Strategicthinking and the fear of failure. In S. E Chipman, J. Segal, R. Glaser (Eds. ), Thinking and learning skills: Current research and open questions (Voi. 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Covington, M. V. , Omelich, C. L. (1979). Effort:The double-edged October 1986 9 American Psychologist sword in school achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 169-182. Crandall, V. C. (1969). Sex differences in expectancy of intellectual and academic reinforcement. In C. P. Smith (Ed. ), Achievement-related motives in children. New York: Russell Sage. deCharms, R. , Carpenter, V. ( 1968). Measuring motivation in culturally disadvantaged school children. In H. J. Klausmeier, G. T. OHearn (Eds. ), Research and developmenttoward the improvement of education. Madison, WI: Dembar Educational Services. Deci, E. L. , Ryan, R. M. (1980). The empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. In L. Berkowitz (Ed. , Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 13). New York: Academic Press. Diener, C. I. , Dweck, C. S. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451-462. Diener, C. I. , Dweck, C. S. (1980). An analysis of learned helplessness: II. The pro cessing of success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 940-952. Diener, E. , Srull, T. K. (1979). Self-awareness, psychological perspecfive, and self-reinforcement in relation to personal and social standards. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 413-423. Dollard, J. , Miller, N. E. (1950). Personality and psychotherapy. New York: McGraw-Hill. Donlon, T. , Ekstrom, R. , Lockheed, M. (1976, September). Comparing the sexes on achievement items of varying content. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 674-685. Dweck, C. S. , Elliott, E. S. (1983). Achievement motivation. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed. , Socialization, personality, and social development. New York: Wiley. Dweck, C. S. , Reppucci, N. D. (1973). Learned helplessness and reinforcement responsibility in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 109-116. Elliott, E. , Dweck, C. S. (1985). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Manuscript submitted for publication. Entin, E. E. , Rayn or, J. O. (1973). Effects of contingent future orientation and achievement motivation on performance in two kinds of tasks. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 6, 320341. Farrell, E. , Dweck, C. (1985). The role of motivational processes in transfer of learning. Manuscript submitted for publication. Fennema, E. , Sherman, J. (1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization, and affective factors. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 51-71. Fowler, J. W. , Peterson, P. L. (1981). Increasing reading persistence and altering attributional style of learned helpless children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 251-260. Fox, L. (1976). Sex differences in mathematical precocity: Bridging the gap. In D. P. Keating (Ed. ), Intellectual talent: Research and development. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Frankl, A. , Snyder, M. L. (1978). Poor performance following unsolvable problems: Learned helplessness or egotism? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1415-1423. Goetz, T, Dweek, C. (1980). Learned helplessness in social situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 246-255. Hilton, T. , Berglund, G. (1974). Sex differences in mathematics aehievementA longitudinal study. Journal of Education Research, 67, 231-237. Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts. Jagacinski, C. M. Nieholls, J. G. (1982, March). Concepts of ability. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Kangas, J. , Bradway, K. (1971). Intelligence at middle age: A thirtyeight year follow-up. Developmental Psychology, 5, 333-337. Leggett, E. (1985, March). Childrens entity and incremental theories of intelligence: Relationships to achievement behavior. Pape r presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston. Leggett, E. (1986, April). Individual differences in effort-ability inference rules: Implications for causaljudgments. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, New York. Lekarczyk, D. T. , Hill, K. T. (1969). Self-esteem, test anxiety, stress and verbal learning. Developmental Psychology, 1, 147-154. Lopper, M. R. (1980). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in children: Detrimental effects of superfluous social controls. In W. A. Collins (Ed. ), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology (Vol. 14). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Lopper, M. R. , Greene, D. (Eds. ) (1978). The hidden costs of reward: New perspectives on the psychology of human motivation. Hillsdale, N J: Erlbaum. Licht, B. G. , Dweck, C.

5 Types of Conditionals

5 Types of Conditionals 5 Types of Conditionals 5 Types of Conditionals By Mark Nichol When crafting â€Å"If (this), then (that)† statements, note that several varieties exist, distinguished by tense and probability. This post describes, with examples, various types of conditional statements. â€Å"Zero conditional† pertains to things that occur in the natural course of events: â€Å"If a person stands out in the rain, he or she gets wet.† Both the main clause (â€Å"he or she gets wet†) and the subordinate clause â€Å"if a person stands out in the rain†) are written in the present simple tense. The first conditional is a form of sentences in which the first clause includes if and a present simple-statement, followed by a future-simple statement in the second clause. By comparison, a second conditional follows the past simple with would and the infinitive. The distinction is that first conditionals are likely but not certain to happen, as in â€Å"If I talk to him, I will remind him,† while a second conditional describes something unlikely to occur, as in â€Å"If he showed some initiative, he would get a raise,† or something that is impossible, as in â€Å"If I could go back in time, I would do things differently.† A third conditional, by contrast, uses the past perfect and the past participle to describe something that did not occur in the past and therefore will never happen (at least, that iteration of the occurrence will never happen, although a repeat attempt might succeed), as in â€Å"If she had remembered to set her alarm, she would have gotten to school on time.† Beware of writing conditional sentences in which an if statement posed in the present-simple tense is followed by a statement that is true regardless of the conditional established in the previous clause, as in â€Å"If you want to get a great burrito, my favorite taqueria is next to the movie theater downtown.† The writer’s favorite taqueria is in the stated location regardless of the desires of the recipient of the communication, so the conditional form is not appropriate here; it would be better to write, â€Å"If you want to get a great burrito, go to my favorite taqueria, next to the movie theater downtown.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:25 Subordinating ConjunctionsThe Four Sounds of the Spelling OUParataxis and Hypotaxis

Email to Mr.Hayward Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Email to Mr.Hayward - Essay Example The study tries to find and analyze the factors of alternative monitors of potential romantic partners. With a small sample of 76 people who are in some committed romantic relationship, Niehuis draws on from the literature the most probable predictors that motivate infidelity in the partners. These predictors are categorized into three categories: qualities that partners bring into the relationship (e.g. permissive sexual values, low conscientiousness, low emotional stability etc.); inter-personal feelings and behavior towards each other in the relationship (e.g. lack of trust, lack of commitment and love etc.); and impact of social network (e.g. how the friends, relatives feel about the relationship and its impact). The sample comprised of equal numbers of male and female participants with an average age of 22 for men and 21 for women. The researcher used McCrae and Costas (1985) Big Five Fersonality measure to rate their own and perception of their partner’s personality. Braiker and Kelleys (1979) Love, Conflict, and Ambivalence scales were used for evaluating the strength of their love in varying situations. Felmlee, Sprecher, and Bassins (1990) 6-item Social Support Scale was used for looking at the extent to which others’ views influence the relationship. Stanley and Markmans (1992) Dedication Commitment, Availability of Fartners, Structural Investment, Social Fressure, and Altemative Monitoring scales were used to evaluate the degree of these characteristics within the partners. Use of Larzelere & Huston’s (1980) dyadic trust scale greatly facilitated to gauge the degree of influence of these predictors in infidelity. Hierarchical regression analysis was carried out wi th gender as control variable. The study found that interpersonal feelings and behavior was largely responsible for alternative monitoring and males are more prone to be unfaithful. I find the study particularly interesting because in the

Business Analysis of Coca Cola International company Research Paper

Business Analysis of Coca Cola International company - Research Paper Example By 1896, Coca-Cola successfully spread across the American border to Canada, Hawaii and Mexico. It is a multi-billion dollar company which is operating in more than 200 countries and offering more than 3,500 beverages. It is recognized as the world`s best known brand and has the world`s largest distribution network. Its products are the most widely known and most commonly used in the entire world. It has such a widespread network that the consumers enjoy Coca-Cola’s products at a rate of more than 300 million servings per day. It has subsidiaries and franchises in every country where it is operating. Coca-Cola is also the leading cola drink in the beverage industry throughout the world (Coca-Cola Company, n.d.). The mission of Coca-Cola is to create value for all the shareholders, customers and stakeholder by creating superior value and making profitable relations with the customers as well. Their mission is to â€Å"To refresh the world...to inspire moments of optimism and h appiness... and to create value and make a difference.† They try to refresh the world by using the advantage that they have as being the world’s largest beverage company. Coca-Cola develops high quality beverages, which itself creates value for the company and helps strengthen its image, contributing to its overall success. Their vision is to work on every aspect of their company in order to achieve sustainable growth. The primary stakeholders of Coca-Cola include employees, customers, partners, society, shareholders and the company itself. They believe that in order to be successful, they must look ahead and plan for the future, using the resources in the most efficient way. Its product, satisfied customers, excellent leadership and, most importantly, a strong brand name further contribute to the overall success of this company (â€Å"Mission, Vision & Values†, n.d.) Porter`s five forces are a set of forces formulated by Michael E. Porter who proposed that strat egies of any company are formulated based on the threat of potential entrants and substitute products, the bargaining power of both buyers and sellers prevailing in the market, as well as the level of rivalry among competitors (Daft & Lane, 2009, p. 196). The amount of capital required by any soft drink company is really high, which acts as a barrier to entry for new entrants. Also, Coca-Cola has such a strong brand name with a huge amount spent on selling and promotion. In order to maintain its market share, Coca-Cola will have to spend a huge amount on advertising to ensure that its message is being carried forward to its customers all over the world. This is also one of the ways through which this company can compete with its rival companies, especially Pepsi. Coca-Cola and Pepsi dominate the soft drink industry and therefore, Coco-Cola will have to come up with new ideas in order to compete effectively and maintain its position in the market. The pricing done by this company wil l also depend on the type of market, whether it is customer oriented or seller oriented. SWOT Analysis: Strengths: The biggest strength that Coca-Cola has is its Coke itself. It has been able to maintain its original taste for years and this is the reason why its customers are always loyal. It has the strongest brand across the globe with a brand equity of over $50 billion. The quality and taste are the major strengths of Coca-Cola and one of the reasons for its overall success. In order to main